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SignWriting

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the signage profession, see Signwriter.
SignWriting
Script type
Period
1974–present
DirectionHorizontal (left-to-right) or vertical (top-to-bottom)
LanguagesAmerican Sign Language, Danish Sign Language and other sign languages
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Sgnw (095), ​SignWriting
Unicode
Unicode alias
SignWriting
U+1D800–U+1DAAF

Sutton SignWriting, or simply SignWriting, is a writing system for sign languages. It can be used to write any sign language, including American Sign Language, Brazilian Sign Language, Tunisian Sign Language, and many others.[1]

SignWriting is the only international writing system for sign languages.[2] It has been used to publish young adult fiction,[3] translate the Bible,[4] caption YouTube videos,[5] and study sign language literacy.[6]

This article contains symbols from the SignWriting Script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of SignWriting symbols.

The SignWriting system is visually iconic: its symbols depict the hands, face, and body of a signer. And unlike most writing systems, which are written linearly, the symbols of SignWriting are written two-dimensionally, to represent the signing space.[7]

SignWriting was invented in 1974 by Valerie Sutton, a ballet dancer who eight years earlier had developed a dance notation named Sutton DanceWriting.[8] The current standardized form of SignWriting is known as the International Sign Writing Alphabet (ISWA).[9]

History

[edit]

Sutton originally created SignWriting in Denmark in the fall of 1974, at the request of professor Lars von der Lieth and others on his research team in the Audiology Research Group at the University of Copenhagen.[10]

Sutton was asked to work on a research project, transcribing the gestures made by Danish hearing and Deaf people while they speak or sign. The project, part of a dissertation by Jan Enggaard Pedersen, showed that Danish Sign Language was a rich language, while the gestures of hearing people were unconnected with language.[11]

Sutton's experience transcribing Danish sign language inspired her to work with Deaf people worldwide, helping them to write their own sign languages. She named the new writing system “SignWriting”.[12]

SignWriting has since been used to write the sign languages of 40 countries.[1] However, it is not clear how widespread its use is in each country.

Between 1986 and 1994 Sutton worked with a software developer to create "SignWriter", a word processor for SignWriting which runs on MS-DOS computers. SignWriter included an integrated sign dictionary, and support for multiple languages and countries.[13]

In 1996, Antonio Carlos da Rocha Costa, a professor at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), discovered SignWriter and introduced it to his colleagues, beginning Brazil's institutional use of SignWriting.[14]

In 2001, SignWriting was used in a Brazilian Sign Language dictionary containing more than 9,500 signs, which was published by the University of São Paulo.[15][16]

mural on the side of a school building
SignWriting displayed on the wall of a Deaf school in Brazil.

In 2005, the Brazilian government issued Federal Decree 5626, which specified that Brazilian Sign Language be taught in universities and public schools, so it could serve as the primary language of instruction for Deaf students.[17]

SignWriting is used to teach Brazilian Sign Language in 18 Federal Universities and 12 public schools in Brazil.[18] In Germany, it is taught to deaf adults to improve their ability to read and write spoken German.[19] There is also a German website dedicated to SignWriting.[20]

Symbols

[edit]

SignWriting represents the positions and movements of your body. Because of this, the SignWriting symbols can be used to write any sign language, or even non-linguistic gestures.[21]

SignWriting has 652 symbols, which are grouped into seven symbol classes: hands; movement; dynamics; head and faces; body; punctuation; and detailed location.[22][9]

SignWriting includes so many symbols because it is designed to work with all sign languages, not just a single language. For instance, SignWriting has 261 hand symbols, but American Sign Language uses only 83 of them.[23][24]

SignWriting has ten basic hand symbols, with all the remaining hand symbols being variations on the basic symbols.[25]

The hand and movement symbols can be modified to show additional information:[25]

  • Hand symbols can be filled in to show which direction the palm of the hand is facing.
  • Movement symbol arrowheads can be filled in to show which hand is performing the movement.

For more information on the SignWriting symbols, see the standard SignWriting textbooks.

Arrangement of symbols

[edit]
An example of SignWriting written in columns, the ASL translation of Jack and Jill

One of the unusual characteristics of SignWriting is its use of two-dimensional layout within an invisible 'sign box'. The relative positions of the symbols within the box iconically represent the locations of the hands and other parts of the body involved in the sign being represented. As such, there is no obvious linear relationship between the symbols within each sign box, unlike the sequence of characters within each word in most scripts for spoken languages. This is also unlike other sign language scripts which arrange symbols linearly as in spoken languages. However, since in sign languages many phonetic parameters are articulated simultaneously, these other scripts require arbitrary conventions for specifying the order of different parameters of handshape, location, motion, etc. Although SignWriting does have conventions for how symbols are to be arranged relative to each other within a sign, the two-dimensional layout results in less arbitrariness and more iconicity than other sign language scripts.[26]

Outside of each sign, however, the script is linear, reflecting the temporal order of signs. Signs are most commonly now written in vertical columns (although formerly they were written horizontally). Sign boxes are arranged from top to bottom within the column, interspersed with punctuation symbols, and the columns progress left to right across the page. Within a column, signs may be written down the center or shifted left or right in 'lanes' to indicate side-to-side shifts of the body.

Sequencing of signs in dictionaries

[edit]

Sutton orders signs in ten groups based on which fingers are extended on the dominant hand. These are equivalent to the numerals one through ten in ASL. Each group is then subdivided according to the actual hand shape, and then subdivided again according to the plane the hand is in (vertical, then horizontal), then again according to the basic orientation of the hand (palm, side, back). An ordering system has been proposed using this beginning and examples from both American Sign Language and Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS).[27] The current system of ordering for SignWriting is called the Sign Symbol Sequence which is parsed by the creator of each sign as recorded into the on-line dictionary. This system allows for internal ordering by features including handshape, orientation, speed, location, and other clustered features not found in spoken dictionaries.

Advantages and disadvantages

[edit]

Some of the advantages of SignWriting, compared to other writing systems for sign languages, are:

  • Its iconicity makes it easy to learn to read, in particular the iconicity that results from layout in two dimensions instead of just one.
  • It has detailed mechanisms for representing facial expression and other non-manuals.
  • It has been adapted for use with many different sign languages.

However, it has a few disadvantages as well:

  • The sheer size of its symbol set and the fine details which can be written create a challenge in learning how to write. It also means that the written form is largely situational and inventive; different people may write the same sign different ways, and a single person may alternate between transcriptions.
  • The two-dimensional spatial layout of SignWriting symbols within each sign, although it is more iconic than a linear layout, comes at a cost. SignWriting currently requires special software; SignWriting cannot be used as ordinary text within normal word processors or other application software. As a work-around, software (SignMaker and Rand Keyboard) is available on the SignWriting website which allows a sign, once assembled with special SignWriting software, to be copied easily as a graphic image into word processing or desktop publishing software.

SignPuddle is a plain-text (ASCII) string representation of signs. It can be stored as plain text anywhere and be replaced by signs with special programs such as the SignWriting Icon Server.[28] An RFC standard draft for it has been proposed,[1] which later evolved into a stricter draft standard known as "Formal Signwriting" (FSW). It can also use Unicode characters instead of ASCII escapes.[29] There is also an experimental TrueType font that uses the SIL Graphite technology to automatically turn these sequences into signs.[28]

Unicode

[edit]
Main article: Sutton SignWriting (Unicode block)

SignWriting is the first writing system for sign languages to be included in the Unicode Standard. 672 characters were added in the Sutton SignWriting (Unicode block) of Unicode version 8.0 released in June 2015. This set of characters is based on SignWriting's standardized symbol set[30] and defined character encoding model.[31][32]

The Unicode Standard only covers the symbol set. It does not address layout, the positioning of the symbols in two dimensions. Historically, software has recorded position using Cartesian (x–y) coordinates for each symbol.[33] Since Unicode focuses on symbols that make sense in a one-dimensional plain-text context, the number characters required for two-dimensional placement were not included in the Unicode proposal.[32]

The Unicode block for Sutton SignWriting is U+1D800–U+1DAAF:

Sutton SignWriting[a][b][c] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+1D80x 𝠀 𝠁 𝠂 𝠃 𝠄 𝠅 𝠆 𝠇 𝠈 𝠉 𝠊 𝠋 𝠌 𝠍 𝠎 𝠏
U+1D81x 𝠐 𝠑 𝠒 𝠓 𝠔 𝠕 𝠖 𝠗 𝠘 𝠙 𝠚 𝠛 𝠜 𝠝 𝠞 𝠟
U+1D82x 𝠠 𝠡 𝠢 𝠣 𝠤 𝠥 𝠦 𝠧 𝠨 𝠩 𝠪 𝠫 𝠬 𝠭 𝠮 𝠯
U+1D83x 𝠰 𝠱 𝠲 𝠳 𝠴 𝠵 𝠶 𝠷 𝠸 𝠹 𝠺 𝠻 𝠼 𝠽 𝠾 𝠿
U+1D84x 𝡀 𝡁 𝡂 𝡃 𝡄 𝡅 𝡆 𝡇 𝡈 𝡉 𝡊 𝡋 𝡌 𝡍𝪛 𝡎 𝡏𝪛
U+1D85x 𝡐 𝡑𝪛 𝡒 𝡓 𝡔 𝡕 𝡖 𝡗 𝡘 𝡙 𝡚 𝡛 𝡜𝪛 𝡝 𝡞𝪛 𝡟
U+1D86x 𝡠 𝡡 𝡢 𝡣 𝡤 𝡥 𝡦 𝡧 𝡨 𝡩 𝡪 𝡫 𝡬 𝡭 𝡮 𝡯
U+1D87x 𝡰 𝡱 𝡲 𝡳 𝡴 𝡵 𝡶 𝡷 𝡸 𝡹 𝡺 𝡻 𝡼 𝡽 𝡾 𝡿
U+1D88x 𝢀 𝢁 𝢂 𝢃 𝢄 𝢅 𝢆 𝢇 𝢈 𝢉 𝢊 𝢋 𝢌 𝢍 𝢎 𝢏
U+1D89x 𝢐 𝢑 𝢒 𝢓 𝢔 𝢕 𝢖 𝢗 𝢘 𝢙 𝢚 𝢛 𝢜 𝢝 𝢞 𝢟
U+1D8Ax 𝢠 𝢡 𝢢 𝢣 𝢤 𝢥 𝢦 𝢧 𝢨 𝢩 𝢪 𝢫 𝢬 𝢭 𝢮 𝢯
U+1D8Bx 𝢰 𝢱 𝢲 𝢳 𝢴 𝢵 𝢶 𝢷 𝢸 𝢹 𝢺 𝢻 𝢼 𝢽 𝢾 𝢿
U+1D8Cx 𝣀 𝣁 𝣂 𝣃 𝣄 𝣅 𝣆 𝣇 𝣈 𝣉 𝣊 𝣋 𝣌 𝣍 𝣎 𝣏
U+1D8Dx 𝣐 𝣑 𝣒 𝣓 𝣔 𝣕 𝣖 𝣗 𝣘 𝣙 𝣚 𝣛 𝣜 𝣝 𝣞 𝣟
U+1D8Ex 𝣠 𝣡 𝣢 𝣣 𝣤 𝣥 𝣦 𝣧 𝣨 𝣩 𝣪 𝣫 𝣬 𝣭 𝣮 𝣯
U+1D8Fx 𝣰 𝣱 𝣲 𝣳 𝣴 𝣵 𝣶𝪛 𝣷 𝣸 𝣹 𝣺 𝣻 𝣼 𝣽 𝣾 𝣿
U+1D90x 𝤀 𝤁 𝤂 𝤃 𝤄𝪛 𝤅 𝤆 𝤇 𝤈 𝤉 𝤊 𝤋 𝤌 𝤍 𝤎 𝤏
U+1D91x 𝤐 𝤑 𝤒 𝤓 𝤔 𝤕 𝤖 𝤗 𝤘 𝤙 𝤚 𝤛 𝤜 𝤝 𝤞 𝤟
U+1D92x 𝤠 𝤡 𝤢 𝤣 𝤤 𝤥 𝤦 𝤧 𝤨 𝤩 𝤪 𝤫 𝤬 𝤭 𝤮 𝤯
U+1D93x 𝤰 𝤱 𝤲 𝤳 𝤴 𝤵 𝤶 𝤷 𝤸 𝤹 𝤺 𝤻 𝤼 𝤽 𝤾 𝤿
U+1D94x 𝥀 𝥁 𝥂 𝥃 𝥄 𝥅 𝥆 𝥇 𝥈 𝥉 𝥊 𝥋 𝥌 𝥍 𝥎 𝥏
U+1D95x 𝥐 𝥑 𝥒 𝥓 𝥔 𝥕 𝥖 𝥗 𝥘 𝥙 𝥚 𝥛 𝥜 𝥝 𝥞 𝥟
U+1D96x 𝥠 𝥡 𝥢 𝥣 𝥤 𝥥 𝥦 𝥧 𝥨 𝥩 𝥪 𝥫 𝥬 𝥭 𝥮 𝥯
U+1D97x 𝥰 𝥱 𝥲 𝥳 𝥴 𝥵 𝥶 𝥷 𝥸 𝥹 𝥺 𝥻 𝥼 𝥽 𝥾 𝥿
U+1D98x 𝦀 𝦁 𝦂 𝦃 𝦄 𝦅 𝦆 𝦇 𝦈 𝦉 𝦊 𝦋 𝦌 𝦍 𝦎 𝦏
U+1D99x 𝦐 𝦑 𝦒 𝦓 𝦔 𝦕 𝦖 𝦗 𝦘 𝦙 𝦚 𝦛 𝦜 𝦝 𝦞 𝦟
U+1D9Ax 𝦠 𝦡 𝦢 𝦣 𝦤 𝦥 𝦦 𝦧 𝦨 𝦩 𝦪 𝦫 𝦬 𝦭 𝦮 𝦯
U+1D9Bx 𝦰 𝦱 𝦲 𝦳 𝦴 𝦵 𝦶 𝦷 𝦸 𝦹 𝦺 𝦻 𝦼 𝦽 𝦾 𝦿
U+1D9Cx 𝧀 𝧁 𝧂 𝧃 𝧄 𝧅 𝧆 𝧇 𝧈 𝧉 𝧊 𝧋 𝧌 𝧍 𝧎 𝧏
U+1D9Dx 𝧐 𝧑 𝧒 𝧓 𝧔 𝧕 𝧖 𝧗 𝧘 𝧙 𝧚 𝧛 𝧜 𝧝 𝧞 𝧟
U+1D9Ex 𝧠 𝧡 𝧢 𝧣 𝧤 𝧥 𝧦 𝧧 𝧨 𝧩 𝧪 𝧫 𝧬 𝧭 𝧮 𝧯
U+1D9Fx 𝧰 𝧱 𝧲 𝧳 𝧴 𝧵 𝧶 𝧷 𝧸 𝧹 𝧺 𝧻 𝧼 𝧽 𝧾 𝧿
U+1DA0x 𝨀 𝨁 𝨂 𝨃 𝨄 𝨅 𝨆 𝨇 𝨈 𝨉 𝨊 𝨋 𝨌 𝨍 𝨎 𝨏
U+1DA1x 𝨐 𝨑 𝨒 𝨓 𝨔 𝨕 𝨖 𝨗 𝨘 𝨙 𝨚 𝨛 𝨜 𝨝 𝨞 𝨟
U+1DA2x 𝨠 𝨡 𝨢 𝨣 𝨤 𝨥 𝨦 𝨧 𝨨 𝨩 𝨪 𝨫 𝨬 𝨭 𝨮 𝨯
U+1DA3x 𝨰 𝨱 𝨲 𝨳 𝨴 𝨵 𝨶 𝨷 𝨸 𝨹 𝨺 𝨻 𝨼 𝨽 𝨾 𝨿
U+1DA4x 𝩀 𝩁 𝩂 𝩃 𝩄 𝩅 𝩆 𝩇 𝩈 𝩉 𝩊 𝩋 𝩌 𝩍 𝩎 𝩏
U+1DA5x 𝩐 𝩑 𝩒 𝩓 𝩔 𝩕 𝩖 𝩗 𝩘 𝩙 𝩚 𝩛 𝩜 𝩝 𝩞 𝩟
U+1DA6x 𝩠 𝩡 𝩢 𝩣 𝩤 𝩥 𝩦 𝩧 𝩨 𝩩 𝩪 𝩫 𝩬 𝩭 𝩮 𝩯
U+1DA7x 𝩰 𝩱 𝩲 𝩳 𝩴 𝩵 𝩶 𝩷 𝩸 𝩹 𝩺 𝩻 𝩼 𝩽 𝩾 𝩿
U+1DA8x 𝪀 𝪁 𝪂 𝪃 𝪄 𝪅 𝪆 𝪇 𝪈 𝪉 𝪊 𝪋
U+1DA9x  SW 
F2 		 SW 
F3 		 SW 
F4 		 SW 
F5 		 SW 
F6
U+1DAAx  SW 
R2 		 SW 
R3 		 SW 
R4 		 SW 
R5 		 SW 
R6 		 SW 
R7 		 SW 
R8 		 SW 
R9 		 SW 
R10 		 SW 
R11 		 SW 
R12 		 SW 
R13 		 SW 
R14 		 SW 
R15 		 SW 
R16
Notes
a.^ As of Unicode version 16.0
b.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
c.^ U+1D84D, U+1D84F, U+1D851, U+1D85C, U+1D85E, U+1D8F6, U+1D904 shown with modifier U+1DA9B SW-F2

Current software records each sign as a string of characters in either ASCII or Unicode. Older software may use XML or a custom binary format to represent a sign. Formal SignWriting uses ASCII characters to define the two-dimensional layout within a sign and other simple structures.[34] It would be possible to fully define a sign in Unicode with seventeen additional characters.[35] With either character set (Unicode or ASCII), the spelling of a sign produces a word that the can be efficiently processed with regular expressions. These sets are isomorphic.

Accessibility

[edit]

Sutton has released the International SignWriting Alphabet 2010[36] under the SIL Open Font License. The symbols of the ISWA 2010 are available as individual SVG or as TrueType Fonts.

Google has released an open type font called Noto Sans SignWriting[37][38] that supports the SignWriting in Unicode 8 (uni8) specification with modifying characters and facial diacritics.

SignWriting is enabled on Wikimedia Incubator. Test wikis include the ASL Wikipedia on Incubator and the other test wikis of sign languages.

The Sutton SignWriting SignMaker is a sign editor that can be accessed directly, embedded in an iframe, and downloaded. It uses both Formal SignWriting in ASCII (FSW) and SignWriting in Unicode (SWU) character sets, along with the associated style string.

For modern web and app development, several packages are available on GitHub and NPM.

For sign language translation, SignWriting text is a useful abstraction layer between video and the natural language processing of sign language.[39] The usefulness of SignWriting in natural language processing was validated with a new method of machine translation that has achieved over 30 BLEU.[40][41] The conversion of sign language video to SignWriting text is an emerging field with open source options.[42]

Additional machine learning projects are available for handwriting recognition of SignWriting, SignWriting to spoken language, and spoken language to SignWriting.[43]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Slevinski, Stephen (9 May 2016). "The SignPuddle Standard for SignWriting Text". tools.ietf.org. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  2. ^ Kato, Mihoko (2008). "A Study of Notation and Sign Writing Systems for the Deaf". Intercultural Communication Studies. 17 (4): 97–114 – via Scilight.
  3. ^ Almeida, Rubens Ramos de (2023). Telasco e sua turma em: A Lenda Da Manguda - Recontada em libras (linguagem de escrita Sutton Signwriting) (in Brazilian Portuguese). Viegas Editora (published November 9, 2023).
  4. ^ Romero, Nancy. "ASL GOSPEL: Gospels and Selected Scriptures Written in American Sign Language (ASL)". ASL Gospel. Retrieved July 5, 2025.
  5. ^ Brito, Ronnie Fagundes de (June 6, 2012). "Previsão do tempo com SW Signwriting". YouTube. Retrieved July 8, 2025.
  6. ^ Stumpf, Marianne Rossi (2005). The learning process of sign language writing through the SignWriting system: sign languages on paper and in the computer (PhD thesis). Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Retrieved July 8, 2025.
  7. ^ Sutton, Valerie (2022). Read and Write Sign Language with SignWriting (2nd ed.). Valerie Sutton. ISBN 978-0-940361-03-4.
  8. ^ Sutton, Valerie (January 1999). "SignWriting: On the occasion of its 25th anniversary". Sign Language & Linguistics. 2 (2): 271–282 – via John Benjamins e-Platform.
  9. ^ a b Slevinski, Stephen (2012). "ISWA 2010 HTML Reference". ISWA 2010. Archived from the original on May 3, 2025. Retrieved July 8, 2025.
  10. ^ Sutton, Valerie (July 3, 2024). "SIGNWRITING HISTORY: Video 2. SignWriting in the 1970s?". YouTube. Retrieved July 16, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  11. ^ Pedersen, Jan Enggaard (1978). Hearing Danes' Gesture-Repertoire (PhD thesis). University of Copenhagen.
  12. ^ "History of SignWriting". Deutschsprachige Wikipedia (German Wikipedia). Retrieved July 16, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ^ Gleaves, Richard; Sutton, Valerie (2004). "SignWriter". Proceedings of the LREC2004 Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Sign Languages: From SignWriting to Image Processing. Information techniques and their implications for teaching, documentation and communication. ELRA. pp. 7–12. ISBN 978-2-9517408-1-5.
  14. ^ Quadros, Ronice Müller de (1999). "Um capítulo da história do SignWriting" (PDF). Instituto Federal Santa Catarina. Retrieved June 28, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  15. ^ Capovilla, F.C.; Raphael, W. D., eds. (2001). Dicionário encicopédico ilustrado trilingüe da Língua de Sinais Brasileira: Vol. 1. Sinais de A a L. Edusp, FAPESP, Fundação Vitae, Feneis, Brasil Telecom. ISBN 85-314-0600-5.
  16. ^ Capovilla, F.C.; Raphael, W. D., eds. (2001). Dicionário encicopédico ilustrado trilingüe da Língua de Sinais Brasileira: Vol. 2. Sinais de M a Z. Edusp, FAPESP, Fundação Vitae, Feneis, Brasil Telecom. ISBN 85-314-0603-X.
  17. ^ Quadros, Ronice Müller de (2012). "Linguistic Policies, Linguistic Planning, and Brazilian Sign Language in Brazil". Sign Language Studies. 12 (4): 543–564 – via Project Muse.
  18. ^ Barbosa, Gabriela Otaviani (2017). A arte de escrever em libras (Master's thesis). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Retrieved July 17, 2025.
  19. ^ "delegs – "Learn German with GebärdenScript". delegs. Retrieved July 5, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ Woehrmann, Stefan. "Hallo, herzlich willkommen bei GebärdenSchrift in Deutschland". Retrieved July 5, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  21. ^ Thiessen, Stuart M. (2011). A Grammar of SignWriting (Master's thesis). University of North Dakota. Retrieved July 31, 2025.
  22. ^ "Sutton SignWriting" (PDF). unicode.org. 2024. Retrieved July 19, 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ Sutton, Valerie; Frost, Adam (2014). SignWriting Hand Symbols (PDF). SignWriting Press. ISBN 978-0-914336-86-0.
  24. ^ Sutton, Valerie; Frost, Adam (2013). American Sign Language Hand Symbols (PDF). SignWriting Press. ISBN 978-0-914336-82-2.
  25. ^ a b Sutton, Valerie (2022). Lessons in SignWriting (5th ed.). SignWriting Press. ISBN 978-0-940361-00-3.
  26. ^ Thiessen, Stuart (2011). A Grammar of SignWriting (M.A. thesis). Grand Forks ND: University of North Dakota. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  27. ^ Butler, Charles (August 2001). "An Ordering System for SignWriting" (PDF). The SignWriting Journal (1). Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  28. ^ a b "SignWriting Icon Server". wmflabs. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  29. ^ Slevinski, Stephen. "Formal SignWriting". tools.ietf.org. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  30. ^ "ISWA 2010". Signbank.org. 2012-01-12. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
  31. ^ "Formal SignWriting". IETF. 2016-12-22. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
  32. ^ a b Everson, Michael; Slevinski, Stephen; Sutton, Valerie. "Proposal for encoding Sutton SignWriting in the UCS" (PDF). Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  33. ^ Jr, Stephen E. Slevinski (9 May 2013). "The SignPuddle Standard for SignWriting Text".
  34. ^ Jr, Stephen E. Slevinski (20 July 2017). "Formal SignWriting section 2.1.6".
  35. ^ Slevinski, Stephen E. Jr (2017-07-12). "L2/17-220: Design Options for Sutton SignWriting with examples and fonts" (PDF).
  36. ^ Valerie Sutton. "Sutton's SymbolBank: International SignWriting Alphabet (ISWA 2010)". Movementwriting.org. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
  37. ^ "Noto Sans SignWriting". Google Fonts.
  38. ^ "Noto Sans SignWriting". ScriptSource.
  39. ^ Kayo Yin; Amit Moryossef; Julie Hochgesang; Yoav Goldberg; Malihe Alikhani (2021). "Including Signed Languages in Natural Language Processing". arXiv:2105.05222 [cs.CL].
  40. ^ Zifan Jiang; Amit Moryossef; Mathias Müller; Sarah Ebling (2022). "Machine Translation between Spoken Languages and Signed Languages Represented in SignWriting". arXiv:2210.05404 [cs.CL].
  41. ^ Zifan Jiang. "Machine Translation between Spoken Languages and Signed Languages in Written Form" (PDF).
  42. ^ Amit Moryossef. "Sign Language Processing".
  43. ^ Steve Slevinski. "Sutton SignWriting Machine Learning".

Relevant literature

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  • Hoffmann-Dilloway, Erika. 2017. Feeling your own (or someone else's) face: Writing signs from the expressive viewpoint. Language & Communication.
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