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Gross national income

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Map of countries by income groups, based on their gross national income (GNI) per capita, 2023, according to World Bank[1]

Gross national income (GNI), formerly known as gross national product (GNP), is the total amount of factor incomes earned by the residents of a country. It is equal to gross domestic product (GDP), plus factor incomes received from non-residents by residents, minus factor income paid by residents to non-residents.[2]: 44 

In contrast to GDP, GNI is not a concept of value added, but a concept of income. GNI is the basis of calculation of the largest part of contributions to the Budget of the European Union.[3] In February 2017, Ireland's GDP became so distorted from the base erosion and profit shifting ("BEPS") tax planning tools of U.S. multinationals, that the Central Bank of Ireland replaced Irish GDP with a new metric, Irish Modified GNI (or "GNI*"). In 2017, Irish GDP was 127% of Irish GNI and 162% of Irish Modified GNI.[4]

GNI contrast with net national income : NNI = GNI - Depreciation[5]

The Atlas method can be applied to correct for fluctuating exchange rates.[6]

History and name change

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The modern concept of GNP, along with GDP, was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a 1934 U.S. Congress report. Countries like the US and the UK originally preferred GNP as a measure of economic activity while other like Norway preferred GDP.[7] Over time economists settled on using GDP, the US switched to using GDP in 1991.

GNP was defined in the United Nations' 1953 System of National Accounts (SNA) as:

"the market value of product before deduction of provisions of consumption of fixed capital, attributable to factors of production supplied by normal residents of the given country"

Despite framing GNP as a concept of production, the attribution of the value was defined by the income earned by the owner of the factor of production.

In the 1993 revision to the SNA, the GNP definition was reframed from the point of view of the residents receiving income rather than the point of view of the factor of production. To reflect this, GNP was renamed GNI; the "national" part was kept as it is embedded in economic usage, even though the same concept of residence is used to define both GDP and GNI.[8]

GNP continues to be used in the National income and product accounts to refer to GNI calculated for expenditure data.

Type of income included in GNI

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GNI includes the salaries and wages of cross-border commuters and seasonal workers working overseas but does not include remittance sent by workers to their families overseas. This explains why France GNI is higher than its GDP as a lot of French residents work in Luxembourg, Monaco, or Switzerland. In comparison, India GNI is lower than its GDP despite being the larger receiver of remittances.

GNI also includes the propriety income: rent, interest, and "profit". The "profit" included both distributed income of corporations (dividends) and reinvested earnings on foreign direct investment, those are profit retained by the corporation. Like in the IMF balance of payments manual they are treated as if they were distributed to foreign direct investors in proportion to their ownership of the equity of the enterprise and then reinvested by them using additions in equity.

The GNI of EU countries also included subsidies received from the EU and excluded tariffs as the EU receives those.

GNI contrasts with Gross national disposable income which includes all current transfer income like international cooperation and remittance.

Comparison of GNI and GDP

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Comparison of GNI (Atlas method). GNI and GDP
2024 World Bank (millions of current US$)
CountryGNI (Atlas method)[9]GNI[10]GDP[11]
aa - cbb - cc
 United States28395284.6−466392.329194127.0164165.027360935.0
 China19253311.91104478.218615022.9−131070.117794782.0
 Germany4601090.9646932.44847009.0203987.24212945.2
 Japan4463243.8103052.14290008.0178408.24456081.0
 India3837862.880317.83853338.9−52097.43549918.9
 United Kingdom3424416.8−73042.83659245.4−43335.43340032.4
 France3096054.841559.73221122.947987.23030904.1
 Italy2275197.0−10266.32374544.0−3942.82254851.2
 Russia2236147.722547.12210877.7−30699.92140085.6
 Canada2204813.063336.62145349.9−27001.62021421.5
 Brazil2105073.3−2108530.02112836.2−63108.62173665.7
 South Korea1902094.9122682.91902456.731909.81712792.9
 Australia1701530.0−41827.81805281.8−71320.81723827.2
 Mexico1681001.9−1674500.01721317.2−10836.81580694.7
 Spain1630800.7−234550.71695733.1−44175.41788886.8
 Indonesia1393240.4−18582.81359439.6−35304.81371171.2
 Saudi Arabia1255610.6−33335.01343248.7−6673.31118124.7
 Netherlands1130800.1−7726.91245906.15835.51067582.9
 Turkey1124430.0−114010.11204132.0−11213.01108022.4
 Switzerland866359.1−42808.3897366.8−27647.8884940.4
 Poland787996.1−87547.1887015.3−34122.6811229.1
 Belgium655615.0651342.4682334.123537.2593267.7
 Sweden621736.312471.7630512.113803.3632216.6
 Argentina614324.6−56481.4625195.0−14253.3640591.4
 Norway547619.380024.9568335.720147.1485513.3
 United Arab Emirates53836426956.3535825.3−922.2509901.5
 Israel528041.4604.3533758.6−12024.2514945.0
 Philippines518147.713974.2521766.4−919.6504173.5
 Thailand508953.5−13102.9510441.3−1590.5516034.1
 Austria497098.959019.8505791.648008.2437146.4
 Bangladesh490164.556516.6454873.517458.1437415.3
 Egypt439247.243321.1378607.7−17318.4395926.1
 Denmark436283.032084.2418427.514228.7404198.8
 Nigeria432496.769681.8355832.5−6982.4362815.0
 Ireland423058.9−122570.6421766.9−123862.6545629.5
 Singapore417722.2−83705.3420675.1−80752.4501427.5
 Iran417389.015884.5401036.3−468.3401504.5
 Hong Kong415973.133918.5416242.134187.5382054.6
 Vietnam412944.1−16772.8407254.0−22463.0429717.0
 Malaysia410754.511105.6387578.2−12070.6399648.8
 South Africa407575.929794.3372625.7−5155.9377781.6
 Pakistan360729.322360.9332603.5−5765.0338368.5
 Colombia357640.3−5899.9361333.8−2206.4363540.2
 Romania317743.0−33259.6341578.5−9424.1351002.6
 Chile310627.6−24905.7318450.1−17083.2335533.3
 Finland298118.3−2068.9299653.1−534.1300187.2
 Czech Republic294826.0−36032.4315842.0−15016.4330858.3
 Portugal276490.3−10589.7281729.0−5351.1287080.0
 Iraq254601.23758.4252096.71253.9250842.8
 New Zealand253873.8408.1247095.5−6370.2253465.7
 Peru240295.2−27308.1253910.6−13692.7267603.2
 Greece233934.8−4271.5236451.9−1754.4238206.3
 Algeria226263.4−13636.1236495.6−3403.9239899.5
 Kazakhstan217777.6−43643.6235418.9−26002.2261421.1
 Kuwait198885.237113.0194323.832551.6161772.2
 Hungary190073.7−22315.2206408.0−5980.9212388.9
 Ukraine174919.0−3838.0184268.05511.0178757.0
 Ethiopia142605.3−21092.6163284.5−413.4163697.9
 Morocco142288.81179.4138989.9−2119.5141109.4
 Slovakia123675.8−9117.8129363.5−3430.1132793.6
 Ecuador118390.5−454.4116176.1−2668.7118844.8
 Kenya116406.48965.9105674.4−1766.1107440.6
 Dominican Republic109970.1−11474.2116006.7−5437.6121444.3
 Oman100047.1−8145.4100551.0−7641.5108192.5
 Guatemala98164.7−3885.8100245.8−1804.7102050.5
 Bulgaria92955.1−8629.398154.8−3429.6101584.4
 Uzbekistan86005.4−4883.890128.1−761.090889.1
 Puerto Rico80926.1−36976.281550.7−36351.6117902.3
 Panama80479.7−2902.780057.3−3325.183382.4
 Ghana79823.53453.175420.4−950.076370.4
 Croatia79658.8−3030.082762.173.382688.8
 Tanzania79293.0134.877758.4−1399.979158.3
 Angola78319.3−6403.777036.1−7686.884723.0
 Sri Lanka77922.9−6434.081623.4−2733.484356.9
 Ivory Coast77059.7−1729.175606.1−3182.778788.8
 Costa Rica72207.0−14291.079835.0−6662.986497.9
 Belarus71440.1−417.369257.3−2600.171857.4
 Lithuania71291.2−6545.275164.4−2672.077836.4
 Azerbaijan67529.1−4827.169157.1−3199.172356.2
 Democratic Republic of the Congo67082.2699.064288.3−2095.066383.3
 Uruguay66854.0−10386.871856.3−5384.677240.8
 Serbia66392.7−8794.571011.8−4175.375187.1
 Myanmar65964.11149.163663.6−1151.464815.0
 Slovenia64938.3−3278.567196.3−1020.568216.8
 Turkmenistan59682.1−205.259381.9−505.559887.3
 Luxembourg59083.3−26671.758922.1−26832.985755.0
 Libya52179.31687.650562.070.350491.7
 Jordan50512.7−301.050351.8−461.850813.6
 Sudan47595.1−61731.9108427.0−900.0109327.0
 Uganda47399.0−1873.948300.2−972.749272.9
 Cameroon47320.1−625.546953.4−992.147945.5
 Tunisia46907.4−1622.247219.7−1309.948529.6
 Bolivia44649.2−1200.744844.2−1005.645849.8
 Paraguay42537.6−418.641585.0−1371.342956.3
 Nepal42332.91424.841385.1477.040908.1
 Bahrain42014.0−1191.040659.8−2545.243205.0
 Latvia41337.1−2290.042515.0−1112.143627.1
 Estonia37217.0−3527.939377.3−1367.640744.8
 Iceland31424.8404.831707.5687.531020.0
 El Salvador31320.4−2695.231874.0−2141.634015.6
 Honduras30718.6−3681.931872.8−2527.734400.5
 Cambodia30702.3−1070.530819.4−953.431772.8
 Senegal29421.1−1592.929981.0−1033.031014.0
 Papua New Guinea29337.9−1594.629106.1−1826.430932.5
 Zimbabwe29075.32537.026187.2−351.026538.3
 Cyprus28780.3−3449.328974.2−3255.432229.6
 Trinidad and Tobago27538.8−601.227093.9−1046.028139.9
 Zambia27196.3−966.327020.1−1142.628162.6
 Bosnia and Herzegovina26211.2−843.726986.0−68.927054.9
 Georgia25119.5−5416.028505.4−2030.130535.5
 Palestine21800.74404.420858.33462.017396.3
 Albania20773.7−2204.022674.9−302.822977.7
 Haiti20425.7574.819855.14.319850.8
 Botswana20389.2993.519153.4−242.419395.8
 Armenia20363.8−3848.423567.1−645.024212.1
 Mali20055.6−849.319940.5−964.420904.9
 Benin19699.626.319549.8−123.519673.3
 Burkina Faso19697.5−627.119484.8−839.920324.6
 Gabon19393.8−1122.418421.3−2094.920516.1
 Guinea19271.1−4341.221019.3−2593.023612.3
 Malta18940.1−2016.919088.4−1868.620957.0
 Mozambique17880.1−2744.518787.4−1837.220624.6
 Jamaica17385.2−2038.118894.1−529.219423.4
 Mongolia17068.9−2803.317982.8−1889.419872.2
 Guyana16572.5−213.815206.3−1580.016786.3
 Niger16303.3−515.916182.4−636.816819.2
 Laos16195.4352.214685.7−1157.515843.2
 Nicaragua16015.9−1813.416935.0−894.217829.2
 Madagascar15926.5−105.215703.0−328.716031.7
 Brunei15825.3697.015322.3194.015128.3
 Moldova15192.2−1347.216749.2209.816539.4
 Republic of the Congo15080.9−240.214485.8−835.315321.1
 Tajikistan14584.52523.915143.83083.112060.6
 Mauritius14539.1141.914752.7355.614397.1
 North Macedonia13879.1−882.213952.0−809.214761.2
 Rwanda13853.0−244.713817.6−280.114097.8
 Malawi13395.3−689.113726.2−358.214084.3
 Bahamas13200.7−1137.813626.7−711.814338.5
 Chad12999.9−149.412956.6−192.713149.3
 Namibia12676.7325.611781.6−569.412351.0
 Kyrgyzstan12065.6−1922.013295.7−691.913987.6
 Somalia11137.4−542.411635.8−44.011679.8
 Kosovo10505.266.910636.2197.810438.4
 Mauritania10453.51.010443.3−9.310452.6
 Togo9323.2151.99210.739.49171.3
 Equatorial Guinea8988.7−3128.28682.0−3435.012116.9
 Montenegro7088.6−315.97477.572.97404.5
 Barbados6000.8−392.76126.6−267.06393.6
 Maldives5745.3−854.75777.2−822.86600.0
 Fiji5221.7−273.15113.3−381.55494.8
 Sierra Leone4921.81111.94395.3585.53809.8
 Eswatini4674.276.34289.4−308.54597.9
 Liberia3950.9−381.14058.0−274.04332.0
 Djibouti3921.8−176.84006.5−92.04098.5
 Suriname3342.8−439.63474.5−307.93782.4
 Burundi3032.6390.42648.05.82642.2
 Belize2955.1−326.43170.4−111.13281.5
 Timor-Leste2904.9661.82581.3338.22243.1
 Central African Republic2710.7155.22706.5151.02555.5
 Lesotho2700.2654.22393.9347.92046.0
 Cape Verde2561.8−25.42577.5−9.82587.3
 Gambia2308.4−31.52309.3−30.62339.9
 Saint Lucia2235.6−284.42304.5−215.42519.9
 Seychelles2029.0−112.52124.7−16.82141.5
 Guinea-Bissau1943.5−23.01993.627.11966.5
 Antigua and Barbuda1884.7−148.41940.1−93.02033.1
 Solomon Islands1680.048.71656.425.11631.3
 Comoros1362.910.51355.22.81352.4
 Grenada1236.5−83.91237.4−82.91320.3
 Vanuatu1224.798.41281.0154.71126.3
 Turks and Caicos Islands1224.0−178.11342.5−59.61402.1
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines1043.8−22.21058.6−7.41066.0
 Saint Kitts and Nevis1020.9−56.11049.2−27.81077.0
 Samoa908.2−25.9922.4−11.7934.1
 Dominica651.2−2.8655.81.8654.0
 São Tomé and Príncipe573.9−29.4610.87.5603.2
 Kiribati497.8218.8467.5188.5279.0
 Federated States of Micronesia478.618.6504.344.3460.0
 Marshall Islands318.034.0324.840.8284.0
 Nauru282.3128.2262.4108.3154.1
 Palau257.3−5.8269.86.7263.0
 Tuvalu86.023.884.221.962.3


Lists of GNI per capita

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GNI (Atlas method) PPP

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PPP – millions of international dollars (top 15)[12]

Rank 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013
1  China34,388,534  China31,576,043  China28,620,862  China25,044,516  China24,232,656  China22,355,235  China20,567,696  China19,169,812  United States18,608,138  United States17,984,237  United States17,140,708
2  United States27,525,100  United States25,926,000  United States23,777,600  United States21,479,588  United States21,760,847  United States20,883,383  United States19,837,150  United States18,983,369  China18,129,539  China17,445,351  China16,241,642
3  India14,324,038  India12,858,238  India11,250,341  India9,639,773  India9,837,436  India9,131,972  India8,264,362  India7,706,181  India7,120,994  India6,732,248  India6,416,831
4  Japan6,554,254  Japan6,254,021  Japan5,866,681  Japan5,554,842  Japan5,616,185  Japan5,548,453  Japan5,456,930  Japan5,338,419  Japan5,404,453  Japan5,221,591  Japan5,194,308
5  Russia6,366,121  Russia5,884,375  Russia5,598,676  Germany4,952,942  Germany5,021,459  Germany4,730,328  Germany4,491,248  Germany4,268,496  Germany3,977,709  Germany3,883,390  Germany3,712,582
6  Germany6,092,387  Germany5,799,414  Germany5,351,636  Russia4,542,377  Russia4,434,791  Russia4,128,705  Russia3,705,398  Russia3,440,587  Russia3,428,610  Russia3,639,325  Russia3,611,853
7  Brazil4,325,589  Brazil4,055,711  France3,728,403  France3,370,362  France3,527,047  France3,197,838  France3,050,429  France2,924,693  Brazil2,932,875  Brazil3,107,798  Brazil3,077,182
8  France4,235,079  France3,984,079  Brazil3,669,595  Brazil3,289,682  United Kingdom3,332,513  Brazil3,098,566  United Kingdom3,009,162  Brazil2,846,198  France2,777,205  France2,719,730  France2,666,952
9  Indonesia4,221,517  Indonesia3,870,444  United Kingdom3,561,213  United Kingdom3,151,687  Brazil3,244,271  United Kingdom3,087,113  Brazil2,924,571  United Kingdom2,824,431  United Kingdom2,706,923  United Kingdom2,619,025  United Kingdom2,516,787
10  United Kingdom3,974,003  United Kingdom3,866,883  Indonesia3,434,771  Indonesia3,134,896  Indonesia3,166,892  Indonesia2,978,437  Indonesia2,766,769  Indonesia2,628,825  Indonesia2,538,121  Indonesia2,518,157  Indonesia2,448,797
11  Turkey3,729,107  Italy3,324,775  Italy2,988,508  Italy2,660,830  Italy2,797,692  Italy2,629,049  Italy2,531,220  Italy2,427,622  Mexico2,251,300  Mexico2,200,816  Italy2,183,587
12  Italy3,446,469  Turkey3,227,873  Turkey2,627,527  Mexico2,375,085  Mexico2,564,439  Mexico2,538,888  Mexico2,464,263  Mexico2,393,565  Italy2,225,429  Italy2,200,447  Mexico2,088,045
13  Mexico3,207,460  Mexico2,972,064  Mexico2,608,640  Turkey2,362,958  Turkey2,313,729  Turkey2,271,021  Turkey2,235,991  Turkey2,094,056  Turkey1,999,739  Turkey1,844,207  South Korea1,737,910
14  South Korea2,846,253  South Korea2,706,619  South Korea2,542,823  South Korea2,360,461  South Korea2,290,264  South Korea2,229,385  South Korea2,112,226  South Korea2,034,378  South Korea1,939,637  South Korea1,801,276  Saudi Arabia1,730,115
15  Spain2,535,604  Canada2,384,385  Canada2,114,747  Spain1,850,441  Spain2,065,307  Spain1,908,195  Spain1,843,464  Spain1,738,407  Spain1,621,469  Saudi Arabia1,777,122  Turkey1,688,340

Gross national product

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Gross national product (GNP) is the market value of all the goods and services produced in one year by labor and property supplied by the citizens of a country. Unlike gross domestic product (GDP), which defines production based on the geographical location of production, GNP indicates allocated production based on location of ownership. In fact it calculates income by the location of ownership and residence, and so its name is also the less ambiguous gross national income.

GNP is an economic statistic that is equal to GDP plus any income earned by residents from overseas investments minus income earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents.

GNP does not distinguish between qualitative improvements in the state of the technical arts (e.g., increasing computer processing speeds), and quantitative increases in goods (e.g., number of computers produced), and considers both to be forms of "economic growth".[13]

When a country's capital or labour resources are employed outside its borders, or when a foreign firm is operating in its territory, GDP and GNP can produce different measures of total output. In 2009 for instance, the United States estimated its GDP at $14.119 trillion, and its GNP at $14.265 trillion.[14]

The term gross national income (GNI) has gradually replaced the Gross national product (GNP) in international statistics.[15][12] While being conceptually identical, the precise calculation method has evolved at the same time as the name change.[16]

Use of GNP

[edit]

The United States used GNP as its primary measure of total economic activity until 1991, when it began to use GDP.[17] In making the switch, the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) noted both that GDP provided an easier comparison of other measures of economic activity in the United States and that "virtually all other countries have already adopted GDP as their primary measure of production".[18] Many economists have questioned how meaningful GNP or GDP is as a measure of a nation's economic well-being, as it does not count most unpaid work and counts much economic activity that is unproductive or actually destructive.[19]

GNI vs GDP

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While GDP measures the market value of all final goods and services produced in a given country, GNI measures income generated by the country's citizens, regardless of the geographic location of the income. In many states, those two figures are close, as the difference between income received by the country versus payments made to the rest of the world is not significant. According to the World Bank, the GNI of the US in 2016 was 1.5% higher than GDP.[20]

In developing countries, on the other hand, the difference might be significant due to a large amount of foreign aid and capital inflow. In 2016, the GNI[21] of Armenia was 4.45% higher than GDP.[22] Based on the OECD reports, in 2015 alone, Armenia has received a total of US$409 million development assistance. Over the past 25 years, USAID has provided more than one billion USD to improve the living of the people in Armenia. GNI equals GDP plus wages, salaries, and property income of the country's residents earned abroad that also constitutes the higher GNI figure. According to the UN report on migration from Armenia in 2015–17, every year around 15–20 thousand people leave Armenia permanently,[23] and roughly 47% of those are working migrants that leave the country to earn income and sustain the families left in Armenia. In 2016 Armenian residents received in a total of around $150 million remittances.[24] Armenia's GNI, measured in US dollars, amounted to US$13.5 billion in 2021, according to the National Statistical Office. This is an 8.23% increase over the prior year. GNI in USD terms in Armenia has historically ranged from a record high of US$13.8 billion in 2019 to a record low of US$1.06 billion in 1992. Regarding interest rates on GNI expressed in USD, Armenia is ranked 119th out of the 155 monitored nations.[25] The Philippines Gni per capita was also exceeding the targets as projected to achieve middle status, and the country is a pioneer in digital finance as It is the first country in the world to put its entire national budget under blockchain technology.[26]

Lists of GNI per capita

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "World Bank's Income Groups". Our World in Data. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
  2. ↑ Todaro, Michael P.; Smith, Stephen C. (2012). Economic development (11 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-13-801388-2.
  3. ↑ "Monitoring GNI for own resource purposes". Eurostat Statistic Explained. Eurostat. Archived from the original on 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2016-06-23.
  4. ↑ Joebges, Heike (January 2017). "CRISIS RECOVERY IN A COUNTRY WITH A HIGH PRESENCE OF FOREIGN-OWNED COMPANIES: The Case of Ireland" (PDF). IMK Macroeconomic Policy Institute, Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.
  5. ↑ "Net national income". OECD. Retrieved 17 January 2025.
  6. ↑ "detailed methodology – World Bank Data Help Desk". The World Bank Atlas method. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  7. ↑ Vanoli, André (2005). A history of national accounting. Washington, DC: IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-58603-469-6.
  8. ↑ Fund, International Monetary (15 March 1993), "VII. The primary distribution of income account", System of National Accounts, 1993, International Monetary Fund, ISBN 978-92-1-161352-0, retrieved 2024-11-10
  9. ↑ "GNI. Atlas method (current US$)". World Bank. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  10. ↑ "GNI (current US$)". World Bank. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  11. ↑ "GDP (current US$)". World Bank. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  12. 1 2 World Bank. "GNI, PPP (international $)". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  13. ↑ Daly, Herman E. (1996), Beyond Growth. Beacon Press
  14. ↑ "Flow of Funds Accounts of the United States" (PDF). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. 17 September 2010. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  15. ↑ World Bank. "GNI, Atlas method". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
  16. ↑ "Glossary:Gross national income (GNI)". Eurostat Statistic Explained. Eurostat. Archived from the original on 2023-01-27. Retrieved 2016-06-23.
  17. ↑ "BEA: Glossary "G"". Bureau of Economic Analysis. 5 September 2007. Archived from the original on June 4, 2007.
  18. ↑ "Gross Domestic Product as a Measure of U.S. Production" (PDF). August 1991.
  19. ↑ "Beyond GDP". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-07-27.
  20. ↑ "BEA: The World Bank - US figures". the World Bank. 2017.
  21. ↑ "BEA: Armenia GNP". Macrotrends. 2019.
  22. ↑ "BEA: Armenia GDP". Macrotrends. 2019.
  23. ↑ "BEA: Migration Rate and Associated Issues in Armenia in 2016–2017". UN Armenia. 2017.
  24. ↑ "BEA: Inflow of Remittances by Balance of Payments". Central Bank of Armenia. 2019.
  25. ↑ "GNI (Current USD) in Armenia".
  26. ↑ Venzon, Iñigo (January 15, 2026). "Philippines becomes first country to put entire national budget on blockchain". YugaTech. Retrieved March 18, 2026.
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