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Molecular mechanisms of translational control

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology volume 5, pages 827–835 (2004)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Translational regulation can be global or mRNA specific, and most examples of translational regulation that have been described so far affect the rate-limiting initiation step.

  • Global control of translation is frequently exerted by regulating the phosphorylation or availability of initiation factors. Two of the most well-known examples are the regulation of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF)4E availability by 4E-binding proteins (4E-BPs), and the modulation of the levels of active ternary complex by eIF2α phosphorylation.

  • mRNA-specific translational control is driven by RNA sequences and/or structures that are commonly located in the untranslated regions of the transcript. These features are usually recognized by regulatory proteins or micro RNAs (miRNAs).

  • Quasi-circularization of mRNAs can be mediated by the cap structure and the poly(A) tail via the eIF4E–eIF4G–polyA-binding-protein (PABP) interaction. Such interactions between the 5′ and the 3′ ends of mRNAs could provide a spatial framework for the action of regulatory factors that bind to the 3′ untranslated region (UTR). However, other forms of 5′–3′-end interactions are likely to occur as well.

  • Many regulatory proteins target the stable association of the small ribosomal subunit with the mRNA. These factors function by steric hindrance (for example, iron-regulatory protein; IRP), by interfering with the eIF4F complex (for example, Maskin, Bicoid, Cup) or by as-yet-unknown, distinct mechanisms to control translation initiation (sex-lethal; SXL).

  • Other regulatory molecules modulate the joining of the large ribosomal subunit (hnRNP K and E1) or, potentially, post-initiation translation steps (miRNAs).

  • General translation factors can regulate the expression of specific mRNAs. An illustrative example is the stimulation of translation of the mRNA that encodes the GCN4 transcriptional activator by eIF2α phosphorylation.

Abstract

Translational control is widely used to regulate gene expression. This mode of regulation is especially relevant in situations where transcription is silent or when local control over protein accumulation is required. Although many examples of translational regulation have been described, only a few are beginning to be mechanistically understood. Instead of providing a comprehensive account of the examples that are known at present, we discuss instructive cases that serve as paradigms for different modes of translational control.

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Figure 1: Elements that influence translation of mRNA.
Figure 2: Cap-mediated translation initiation.
Figure 3: Global control of protein synthesis.
Figure 4: Mechanisms of mRNA-specific regulation of 40S ribosomal subunit association.
Figure 5: Mechanisms of regulation at post-recruitment steps.
Figure 6: Translational control by micro RNAs.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank J. Valcárcel and R. Cuesta for carefully reading this manuscript. F.G. is supported by grants from La Caixa Foundation and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology. M.W.H. gratefully acknowledges support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the European Union and the Human Frontiers in Science Program.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre de Regulació Genómica, Passeig Marítim 37–49, Barcelona, 08003, Spain

    Fátima Gebauer

  2. European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, Heidelberg, D-69117, Germany

    Matthias W. Hentze

Authors
  1. Fátima Gebauer
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  2. Matthias W. Hentze
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Related links

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DATABASES

Entrez

let-7

lin-4

LOX

Flybase

Cup

Nanos

Oskar

Sxl

Swiss-Prot

Dicer

eIF1

eIF1A

eIF2α

eIF2β

eIF2γ

eIF4A

eIF4E

eIF4G

eIF5

eIF5B

hnRNP E1

hnRNP K

IRP1

IRP2

PABP

ribosomal protein L13a

Glossary

MICRO RNA

A non-coding RNA molecule of ∼21–23 nucleotides that inhibits mRNA expression.

CAP STRUCTURE

A structure, which consists of m7GpppN (where m7G represents 7-methylguanylate, p represents a phosphate group and N represents any base), that is located at the 5′ end of eukaryotic mRNAs.

POLY(A) TAIL

A homopolymeric stretch of usually 25–200 adenine nucleotides that is present at the 3′ end of most eukaryotic mRNAs.

INTERNAL RIBOSOME–ENTRY SEQUENCE

(IRES). A structure that is located in the 5′ UTR or open reading frame of some mRNAs of cellular or viral origin. It mediates translation initiation independently of the cap structure by recruiting the ribosome directly to an internal position of the mRNA.

UPSTREAM OPEN READING FRAME

(uORF). A small open reading frame that is located in the 5′ UTR of some mRNAs.

PSEUDOKNOT

A RNA tertiary structure that is formed when the single-stranded loop in a hairpin structure base pairs with a complementary sequence outside of the hairpin.

EUKARYOTIC INITIATION FACTOR

(eIF). A protein that mediates translation initiation on bulk mRNA.

DEAD-BOX RNA HELICASE

An enzyme that unwinds RNA duplexes and contains the evolutionarily conserved motif DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) in the helicase core region.

SCAFFOLD PROTEIN

A protein that serves as a platform for the assembly of other proteins.

4E-BINDING PROTEIN

(4E-BP). A protein that interacts with the cap-binding protein eIF4E and inhibits its association with eIF4G.

POLYSOME

A string of multiple 80S ribosomes bound to an mRNA molecule.

X-CHROMOSOME DOSAGE COMPENSATION

A process that balances the expression levels of X-linked genes in those organisms in which males and females contain a different number of X chromosomes.

LARGE RIBOSOMAL SUBUNIT PROTEIN L13A

A structural protein that binds to the outer surface of the large (60S) ribosomal subunit.

CERULOPLASMIN

A glycoprotein secreted by the liver that oxidizes Fe2+ to Fe3+.

RNase III

A family of endoribonucleases that cleave double-stranded RNA and have an important role in the maturation of ribosomal RNA, among other processes.

MESSENGER RIBONUCLEOPROTEIN

(mRNP). A messenger RNA that is associated with proteins and that often represents translationally inactive (non-polysomal) mRNA.

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Gebauer, F., Hentze, M. Molecular mechanisms of translational control. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 5, 827–835 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm1488

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